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TheEthicsofCompetitionFrankH.KnightOriginallypublishedintheQuarterlyJournalofEconomics37(August1923):579-624;reprintedinTheEthicsofCompetitionandOtherEssays(NewYork:Harper&Brothers1935)41-75.Majorsectionbreaksarenumberedasintheoriginaltext.Unnumberedsectionbreaksintheoriginaltextareindicatedherebyapartialline.Inthepreviouspaper["EthicsandtheEconomicInterpretation"]thewriterundertooktoargueagainsttheviewofethicsmostcommonlyacceptedamongeconomists.Theargumentwasnotdirectedagainsthedonismassuchbutagainst"scientific"ethicsofanykindagainstanyviewwhichsetsoutfromtheassumptionthathumanwantsareobjectiveandmeasurablemagnitudesandthatthesatisfactionofsuchwantsistheessenceandcriterionofvalueandwhichproceedsonthebasisofthisassumptiontoreduceethicstoasortofglorifiedeconomics.Itwaspointedoutthatanysuchviewconsistentlyreducesthe"higher"wantstoasecondarypositionascomparedwith"lower"andinterpretshumanlifeinbiologicalterms.Butthefactisthathumanbeingsdonotregularlyprefertheirlowerandmore"necessary"needstothosenoteasilyjustifiedintermsofsubsistenceorsurvivalvaluebutperhapsratherthecontrary;inanycasewhatwecallprogresshasconsistedlargelyinincreasingtheproportionofwant-gratificationofanaestheticorspiritualascomparedtothatofabiologicallyutilitariancharacterratherthaninincreasingthe"quantityoflife."Thefactsasemphasizedarealtogetheragainstacceptinganybalance-sheetviewoflife;theypointrathertowardanevaluationofafarsubtlersortthantheadditionandsubtractionofhomogeneousitemstowardanethicsalongthelineofaestheticcriticismwhosecanonsareofanothersortthanscientificlawsandarenotquiteintellectuallysatisfying.Wecannotacceptwant-satisfactionasafinalcriterionofvaluebecausewedonotinfactregardourwantsasfinal;insteadofrestingintheviewthatthereisnodisputingabouttasteswedisputeaboutthemmorethananythingelse;ourmostdifficultprobleminvaluationistheevaluationofourwantsthemselvesandourmosttroublesomewantisthedesireforwantsofthe"right"kind.Thepurposeofthepresentpaperistodevelopandsupplementtheargumentalreadygivenfirstbyre-emphasizingthenecessityofadefensiblecriterionofvaluesasabasisforpassingjudgmentonquestionsofpolicy;andsecondlybyinquiringintothestandardsofvalueimplicitinthelaissez-faireorindividualisticsocialphilosophyandraisingcertainquestionsinregardtothem.Onthefirstheadfortunatelywecanbebrief.Itisathesiswhichcallsfornoelaboratedemonstrationthatsocialpolicymustbebaseduponsocialideals.Anorganizedsystemmustoperateinaccordancewithasocialstandard.Thisstandardwillofcourseberelatedinsomewaytothevaluesoftheindividualsmakingupthesocietybutitcannotbemerelyidenticalwiththem;itpresupposessomeprocessoforganizingthevariousindividualinterestsweighingthemagainsteachotherandadjudicatingconflictsamongthem.Itisimpossibletoformanyconceptof"socialefficiency"intheabsenceofsomegeneralmeasureofvalue.Eveninphysicsandengineering"efficiency"isstrictlyavaluecategory;thereisnosuchthingasmechanicalefficiency.Itfollowsfromthefundamentallawsoftheindestructibilityofmatterandofenergythatwhatevergoesintoanyapparatusorprocesscomesoutinsomeform.Inpurelymechanicaltermsallefficiencieswouldbeequaltoonehundredpercent.Theefficiencyofanymachinemeanstheratiobetweentheusefuloutputandthetotaloutput.Insimplecasesthedistinctionbetweenusefulanduselessmaybesosharpandclearastogiverisetonodiscussion--asinthecaseofthemechanicalenergyandtheheatgeneratedbyanelectricmotor.Butwhenmorethanoneformofusefuloutput(orcostlyinput)isinvolvedthenecessityarisesforhavingameasureofusefulnessofvaluebeforeefficiencycanbediscussed.Theefficiencyrelationsofasteamenginemaybemuchchangedwhentheexhauststeamisappliedtoheating.Insocomplicatedaproblemasthatofsocialefficiencywheretheelementsofoutlayandofreturnarebothinfinitelynumerousanddiverseitisnowonderthattheprocessofvaluationhasbecometheheartandcoreofthestudy.Itmustultimatelyberecognizedthatonlywithinrathernarrowlimitscanhumanconductbeinterpretedasthecreationofvaluesofsuchdefinitenessandstabilitythattheycanserveasscientificdatathatlifeisfundamentallyanexplorationinthefieldofvaluesitselfandnotamerematterofproducinggivenvalues.Whenthisisclearlyseenitwillbeapparentwhysomuchdiscussionofsocialefficiencyhasbeensofutile.Perceptionoftheseobviousfundamentalprinciplesatoncecutsthegroundfromunderoneofthelinesofcriticismoftheeconomicorderwhichhasattractedwideattention.ItisanideasponsoredespeciallybyDr.ThorsteinVeblenandcopiedbyothersthatthereissomedistinctionbetween"pecuniary"and"industrial"employments[Note1]andthatsocietyoughttotakethecontrolofindustryoutofthehandsof"financiers"andputitintothehandsof"technicians."[Note2]Thisnotionrestsonthesameobviousfallacytheideathatsocietyhasachoicebetweenproducingmoregoodsandproducingmorevalueandthatitisthepartofwisdomtoprefertheformer.Itisdifficulttotakeeitherpartofthepropositionseriously.Thequantityofgoodsifthereismorethanonekindmustsoobviouslybemeasuredinvalueunits.Theproposalofleavingittotechniciansintherespectivefieldstosayhowmuchsocialproductivepowershallbeexpendedineachismerelygrotesque;militaryexpertswoulduseitallforthearmyandnavythemedicalmencouldusefullyemployitallandmoreforhealthandsoon.Thereisnomoreimportantfunctionofafirstcourseineconomicsthantomakethestudentseethatthewholeproblemofsocialmanagementisavalueproblem;thatmechanicalortechnicalefficiencyisameaninglesscombinationofwords.Indeedtherecanbenoquestionasthecourseoftheargumentwillshowthatthevalidcriticismsoftheexistingeconomicorderrelatechieflytoitsvaluestandardsandrelativelymuchlesstoitsefficiencyinthecreationofsuchvaluesasitrecognizes.Weshallfurthermoreinsistthatnotmerelyameasureofvaluebutidealsofvalueareprerequisitetoanyintelligentcriticismofsocialprocessesorresults.Thisisnotlikethepropositionregardingefficiencyaself-evidenttruth.Itisquitearguablethatthedeterminationorcriticismofpolicyinvolvesonlyacomparisonofalternativepossibilitiesandachoiceofthatwhichisconsideredpreferable.Itisarguableandthecontentionisinfactoftenputforwardthatvaluesarepurelyrelativethatitmeansnothingtosaythatanythingisgoodorbadexceptincomparisonwithaworseorbetteralternative.Itisapracticalquestion:doesthejudgingfacultyactuallyworkbyreasoningoutalternativesanddecidingwhichispreferableordoesitnotratherformulateidealsandcompareactualityandpotentialitywiththeseandwitheachotherindirectlybysocomparingthemwithanideal?Nodoubtbothmethodsareusedandareuseful;butwecontendthatinregardtothelargerandhigherquestionstheultimateproblemsofmoralandsociallifetheformulationofidealsisanecessarystep.Thereisaplace;andavitalplaceforan"absolute"scienceofethics.Itsdictawillnotbereallyabsolutefortheynevercutlooseentirelyfromtherealworldanditspossibilitiesofgrowthandtransformationandtheywillalwaysgrowandchange.Butatleasttheyarenot"merely"relative;
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